Classroom management of pre-service and beginning teachers: From dispositions to performance

Classroom management is a central aspect of effective teaching. It is related to student motivation and learning achievement. Unfortunately, pre-service and beginning teachers lack on classroom management competence. Therefore, this study aims to find out, which classroom management facets pre-service and beginning teachers struggle with and how they are associated with each other. Professional knowledge, self-efficacy, professional vision, and performance of 206 pre-service and beginning teachers were measured. As a result, medium to high levels of classroom management competence were found. Although self-efficacy and knowledge were partially associated with professional vision, professional vision was not significantly related to performance. Implications for further research on classroom management are discussed.

Although classroom management plays a major role in central teaching outcomes, studies show that especially pre-service and beginning teachers lack knowledge on classroom management (Poznanski et al., 2018).They also feel unprepared for dealing with classroom disruptions and dealing with difficult student behaviors (Meister & Melnick, 2003;Parsad et al., 2001).Consequently, many teachers burn out or leave the profession within the first five years of teaching, citing challenging student behavior as a significant reason (Common Good, 2004;Ingersoll, 2002).
Therefore, it may be appropriate getting a deeper understanding of how far preservice teachers' and beginning teachers' classroom management is developed, concerning formal components like knowledge or performance as well as content-related facets like monitoring, managing momentum, or rules and routines.
One decisive mediator between knowledge and performance, which should be included, are situation-specific cognitive skills (Blömeke & Kaiser, 2017) such as a professional vision of classroom management that lays the ground for adaptive teaching over the course of a lesson.In contrast to knowledge, these "cognitive processes prior to, during, or following real-life performance [...] [are] organized along specific characteristics of classroom situations" (Blömeke & Kaiser, 2017, p. 795-96).
The present study aims to provide a detailed picture of the quality of pre-service and beginning teacher knowledge, professional vision as a situation-specific cognitive skill and performance concerning classroom management.The results should provide a sound basis for the advancement of future teacher training and education programs regarding the structure and development of classroom management competence.

Facets of effective classroom management
Classroom management includes all actions taken by teachers to maintain smooth and productive classroom settings, so as to maximize learning time (Doyle, 1986;Gettinger & Kohler, 2018).The process entails both preventive and reactive strategies (Sugai & Horner, 2006), assuming that preventive strategies have a higher impact on maximizing learning time (Oliver et al., 2011).
Classroom management includes various facets.Firstly, teachers have to be alert to potential classroom disruptions and be prepared to react constructively, which is widely known as "withitness" (Kounin, 1970), or as "active supervision" (De Pry & Sugai, 2002).
The second facet of classroom management is called managing momentum, which encompasses teacher behavior that ensures a steady learning flow (Anderson et al., 1979;Kounin, 1970).For instance, the teaching pace should be neither be too slow or too fast, and transitions conducted smoothly (Anderson et al., 1979;Charles, 2013;Kounin, 1970).Finally, teachers should maintain a group focus through engaging the attention of all students, getting as many students as possible to participate, and giving feedback on student participation and learning activities (Kounin, 1970).
Overall, these three facets entail what Duke sums up as "provisions and procedures necessary to establish and maintain an environment in which instruction and learning can occur" (Duke, 1979, p. xii).For effective teaching, a first prerequisite is to be aware of these provisions and procedures, but this alone is not sufficient for effective classroom management.

Classroom management: from dispositions to performance
To obtain a more comprehensive picture of which factors affect classroom management performance, we applied the Perception-Interpretation-Decision Model (PID-model of Blömeke et al., 2015;Blömeke & Kaiser, 2017).This suggests that teaching performance is determined -beyond conveying knowledge -by a teacher's ability to perceive and interpret classroom events that are relevant for student learning, and to decide how to (re-)act appropriately to these events (see Figure 1).These components are called situation-specific cognitive skills, and especially perception and interpretation represent central aspects of what is also conceptualized as professional vision (Sherin & van Es, 2009).Santagata and Yeh (2016) conducted interviews with beginning teachers, who confirmed the moderating role of these situation-specific cognitive skills, especially in the first years of practice.Two major prerequisites of such situation-specific cognitive skills are professional knowledge and affect-motivation (Figure 1).Professional knowledge that is relevant for teaching mainly consists of content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge and (general) pedagogical knowledge.Classroom management knowledge is related to the latter one (Shulman, 1986;Baumert & Kunter, 2013).Affect-motivation is essentially formed by professional beliefs, motivation, and the ability of self-regulation (Döhrmann et al., 2012).A central facet of affect-motivation with respect to classroom management is classroom-related self-efficacy.This concept refers to people's belief in their capability to conduct the actions required to complete a given task successfully (Bandura, 1997).There are a few studies exploring the association between dispositions and situation-specific cognitive skills regarding classroom management, as well as other teaching-related competencies.For example, regarding the association between professional knowledge and situation-specific cognitive skills, studies by Blömeke et al. (2014), Kersting et al. (2010), Kersting et al. (2012), König et al. (2014), as well as Meschede et al. (2017), revealed significant correlations between purely content knowledge, pedagogical content knowledge, as well as pedagogical knowledge, and situation-specific cognitive skills.
Focussing on classroom management, Gold and Holodynski (2017) found a moderate correlation between classroom management knowledge and professional vision (as situation-specific cognitive skills) of classroom management.
Concerning the association between self-efficacy beliefs as a facet of affect-motivation and professional vision, studies by Gold et al. (2017) and Keppens, Consuegra, and Vanderlinde (2019) both found a positive association between professional vision and self-efficacy in preservice and beginning teacher education.
Finally, with respect to the association between teaching performance in the sense of observable teaching behavior, positive associations between professional vision and teaching performance as well as teaching outcomes could already be found (Kersting et al., 2010;Kersting et al., 2012;Roth et al., 2011).However, for the domain of classroom management, studies have revealed mixed results.König and Kramer (2016) found a significant moderate positive association between professional vision of classroom management and classroom management performance assessed through student ratings.
However, Gold et al. (2021) could not replicate these findings on a larger sample, using a similar measurement of classroom management performance, namely student ratings, but a different measure for professional vision.

Differences in expertise between pre-service teachers and beginning teachers
Concerning the associations between dispositional and situational skills, it is instructive to know whether there are any differences in the quality and strength of these associations between pre-service teachers and beginning teachers.Since the latter are already teaching in schools and engage with teaching issues, they may display a rather different profile of these dispositional and situational skills than pre-service teachers who are confronted with them mainly in academic courses at their university.
Looking at the educational status and professional experience of participants, there are studies which focus exclusively on experienced in-service teachers (Blömeke et al., 2014;Gold et al., 2021;Kersting et al., 2010;Kersting et al., 2012;Roth et al., 2011), or solely on preservice teachers (Gold et al., 2017).Others have combined the examination of pre-service teachers, beginning teachers, and experienced in-service teachers (Gold & Holodynski, 2017;König & Kramer, 2016;Meschede et al., 2017) and found a significant difference in the level of professional vision regarding classroom management (d = 0.35) between pre-service teachers (with a bachelor degree) and experienced in-service teachers (Gold & Holodynski, 2017).The study of König and Kramer (2016) confirmed this result, but revealed a significant difference even between pre-service teachers and beginning teachers (d = 0.37), as well as between beginning teachers and experienced teachers (d = 0.61).Unfortunately, to the best of our knowledge, there are no studies which compared the associations between dispositional and situational skills, depending on the level of teaching experience.
Theoretically, it might be assumed that pre-service teachers' knowledge structures are less interwoven with situation-specific cognitive skills than those of beginning teachers, because, in contrast to beginning teachers, pre-service teachers rather lack possibilities to apply their knowledge on specific situations (Renkl, Mandl, & Gruber, 1996).
Concerning the association between self-efficacy beliefs as a facet of affect-motivation and professional vision, studies by Gold et al. (2017) and Keppens, Consuegra, and Vanderlinde (2019) both found a positive association between professional vision and selfefficacy in pre-service and beginning teacher education.

The present study
The present study has two aims.First, levels and associations between classroommanagement-related knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs, and professional vision will be examined, looking for possible differences between pre-service and beginning elementary school teachers.We hypothesized that beginning teachers would display slightly higher levels of knowledge, since they already had a master degree.We also assumed that beginning teachers have a more accurate professional vision of classroom management, since they have gathered more experience.By contrast, since beginning teachers experience their career entries very differently (Björk, Stengård, Söderberg, Andersson, & Wastensson, 2019), we assumed that self-efficacy beliefs would be almost equal between the two groups.
Concerning the associations between knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs, and professional vision, we did not expect any differences.
Second, this article explores the associations between dispositional skills (namely knowledge and self-efficacy beliefs), situation-specific cognitive skills (namely professional vision), and teaching performance in the domain of classroom management.Relying on the PID-Model and previous findings, we expected a significant positive association between professional vision and knowledge, as well as self-efficacy beliefs concerning classroom management.Moreover, we hypothesized a significant positive association between professional vision and classroom management.

METHOD Sample and procedure
The sample consisted of 206 pre-service and beginning teachers educated in the State of North-Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.In contrast to many other countries (for an overview see Howe, 2006), German teacher education consists of two phases.The first phase takes place at universities for about five years and entails a scientific-based education.Pre-service teachers study two teaching subjects and attend general courses in Educational Sciences.
The second phase, that of "induction", mainly takes place in school, accompanied by courses regarding subject-specific and general principles of teaching at a teacher training college and lasts about 18 months.
We collected data from both phases.85 participants of this study were pre-service elementary school teachers (first phase), who were graduate students (had earned a bachelor degree) and had just commenced their practical semester in which they taught at a school for half a school year.73 percent of the pre-service teachers were female.On average they were 25.44 years old (SD = 3.26) and were in their fourth year of study.They had 12.48 hours of previous lesson experience (SD = 29.25).
Additionally, 121 participants of this study were beginning elementary school teachers, who had already attended the induction phase at school (second phase).89 percent of the beginning teachers were female.On average they were 26.31 years old (SD = 2.82).
They had 38.95 hours of teaching experience (SD = 29.93),which included lessons given during their practical semester.We followed ethical and data privacy guidelines, as we had informed all beginning teachers in the study, the principals of their schools and the parents of the recorded classes about the study and had obtained written consent from all members.The videos and survey results were stored on a protected university server.

Classroom management knowledge
To assess classroom management knowledge, the ProwiN-Test (Lenske et al., 2015) was used, which covers two forms of knowledge (declarative and procedural-conditional) on relevant teaching topics (classroom management, teaching methods, individualized instruction and feedback).The test provides six tasks for assessing knowledge of classroom management, two of them measuring declarative knowledge and four of them proceduralconditional knowledge.
Each of the two tasks for measuring declarative knowledge consists of a question ("What are effective strategies for preventing classroom disruptions?","What are effective strategies for optimizing procedures between different learning activities?") with a set of five more or less effective strategies.Participants had to evaluate for each strategy, how much they agree that it is suitable for the particular task, based on a Likert scale (ranging from 1=very much to 4=not at all).For each set of strategies, eight research experts in the domain of classroom management compiled a consensual expert rating concerning whether a strategy is either suitable or unsuitably.Participants' answers were compared with these expert ratings.They received one point for each case for which they could reproduce the experts' rating.The final test score was calculated as the proportion of correct answers to the number of potentially correct answers, and ranged from 0 to 1.
To assess procedural-conditional classroom management knowledge, participants read four vignettes of critical classroom situations.For each vignette, a set of four to six classroom management strategies were offered (vignette example: "Imagine that a teacher wants to check the class's homework.What can he/she do to optimize the procedure?";related strategies: (1) "The teacher can ask the students to come to his/her desk to do the checking.",(2) "The teacher can patrol the rows of desks and control homework during discussion.",(3) "The teacher can ask a student to collect all the homework and check it all while students continue working.",(4) "The teacher can patrol the rows of desks and check the homework at the beginning of the lesson."(5) "The teacher can patrol the rows of desks and check the homework while students work.").Participants had to judge on a Likert scale, how well the proposed strategy fits the described critical situation (ranging from 1 = very well to 6 = insufficiently).The ProwiN-Test provides an expert rating for the relative effectiveness of each strategy within each vignette, that yields a rank order of the proposed strategies for each vignette.If a participant reproduced the relative rank order of the expert rating between two answers, they received one point.For example, if the experts rated Strategy 1 to react as more effective than Strategy 2 (1 > 2), participants received a point if they also ranked Strategy 1 higher than Strategy 2. For rating both strategies as equally effective, they received half a point, for evaluating Strategy 1 as less effective than Strategy 2 or a missing judgement, they obtained zero points.The final test score was calculated as proportion of correct pair comparisons to the number of potentially correct pair comparisons, and ranged from 0 to 1.
In the original study, both parts of the test yielded satisfactory to moderate reliability scores, namely Cronbach's α = .86for procedural-conditional knowledge and Cronbach's α = .61for declarative knowledge (Lenske et al., 2015).
Since we used only the six tasks for classroom management, we combined the scores of declarative and procedural-conditional knowledge (with a weight of 2 and 4) to form a general pedagogical knowledge score.For general classroom management knowledge, the test showed a relatively poor internal consistency (α = .48).students to follow classroom rules?(3) calm a student who is disruptive and noisy?(4) keep a few problem students from ruining an entire lesson?") on a 9-point Likert scale ranging from "1 (not at all certain I can do)" to "9 (absolutely certain I can do)".As in the validation study (α = .91-.94), the self-efficacy scale revealed a very good internal consistency (α = .87)

Self-efficacy beliefs about classroom management
in the present study.The sum of the four items was divided by 36 (maximum of points) to generate a self-efficacy score ranging from 0 to 1. Blömeke et al. (2015) suggest perception, interpretation and decision-making as factors influencing teaching performance.We used a validated video-based test measuring professional vision of classroom management (Gold & Holodynski, 2017), which mainly covers the interpretation of classroom events that are relevant for classroom management.

Professional vision of classroom management as a situation-specific cognitive skill
The test consists of three video clips from early science lessons in primary schools (2nd and 3rd grade) lasting 2 to 5 min that were selected from a set of 29 lesson clips on the basis of an expert rating.In these lesson clips, students discussed hypotheses on physical phenomena, conducted experiments to test them, and discussed their experimental results.
One clip shows clearly improvable classroom management, and both others quite good classroom management.Participants had to rate these three lesson clips regarding 42 rating items, on a 4-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 = totally disagree to 4 = totally agree), which referred to the three facets of classroom management described in the introduction.The ability to interpret the observed teacher's monitoring was measured by items such as "The teacher does not notice that remarkably many of the students do not follow the change from experimenting to presenting", whereas managing momentum was represented by such items as "The transition between the experiments and the reflection phase including student presentations is conducted too quickly".Establishing rules and routines was evaluated using such items as "Thanks to the sound signal, the first group can quickly begin their presentation." Participants' answers were compared to an expert rating by 16 experts on educational psychology in general and classroom management in particular.One point was given for exact agreement with the experts' consensual answer and zero points for the other scale values.The final test score was calculated as the proportion of correctly judged items to the whole number of 42 items and ranged from 0 to 1.The item sets for each of the three classroom management facets monitoring, managing momentum, and establishing rules and routines revealed moderate internal consistencies (αmonitoring = .76,αmanaging momentum = .69,αrules and routines = .64).

Classroom management performance
Classroom management performance of the beginning teachers was rated via a coding manual that Lenske et al. (2016) developed for rating teaching performance regarding the facets of monitoring, managing momentum, and establishing rules and routines, as well as dealing with disruptions.For the present study, we combined the facets dealing with disruptions and monitoring, because both facets overlap and we intended to match the three facets of the professional vision test with the respective facets of the performance rating.
The rating procedure was conducted as follows.Each beginning teacher prepared and taught a lesson in mathematics or German, which lasted about 45 min and which was recorded with one HD-camera that covered the whole class.Trained judges watched each recorded lesson by using a time-sampling procedure.For each 5 min time slot, they made detailed notes of the three classroom management facets and summarized the quality of each of the three facets on a 4-point scale (1 = very poor, 2 = rather poor, 3 = rather good, 4 = very good), for each 5 min time slot.The final performance scores on classroom management for each pre-service teacher was calculated as the mean across all 5-min ratings of his or her lesson for each classroom management facet.The scores ranged from 1 (very poor) to 4 (very good) and were converted into an average score ranging from 0 to 1.
The training of the performance evaluation lasted 6 hours and contained the following components.(1) Information about classroom management and its three facets (monitoring, managing momentum, establishing rules and routines) with a detailed coding manual referring to positive and negative behavioral indicators of each facet, (2) video demonstrations of each facet as well as (3) exercises of video analysis with feedback by experts and an expert rating.
Four judges participated in the training.For assessing the interrater reliability of the performance ratings, the four trained judges evaluated 16 (30%) recorded lessons, which were randomly selected from the total number of 52 recorded lessons.Interrater reliability was calculated with unadjusted ICC, which also assigned substantial mean differences between judges to error variance.Raters' overall classroom management coding yielded a very good interrater reliability ICCCM unadjusted = .82).The coding on the facets monitoring and establishing rules and routines revealed a good interrater reliability (ICCmonitoring = .78,ICCrules and routines = .77).The interrater reliability of managing momentum (ICCmanaging momentum = .53)was only moderate, but still acceptable (Cicchetti, 1994;Koo & Li, 2016).This low interrater reliability was caused by significant mean differences between judges.As overall the interrater reliability was satisfactory, the remaining 36 recorded lessons were coded by only one trained rater.

Data analysis
For testing statistical prerequisites (linear relationship between variables, search for outliers, etc.), for displaying descriptive statistics, and calculating t-tests, we used IBM SPSS Statistics 25 (IBM, 1983(IBM, -2017)).For performing moderator analysis, we additionally applied the IBM SPSS Package PROCESS 3.5 (Hayes, 2018).
Path analyses were conducted with IBM SPSS Amos 25.0.0 (IBM, 1983(IBM, -2017)).We chose to work only with manifest variables because the sample size was insufficient for structural equation modelling.Figures were also designed with IBM SPSS Amos 25.0.0 (IBM, 1983(IBM, -2017)).Performance was not included in this comparison between pre-service teachers and beginning teachers, because pre-service teachers were still at university and could give nor record any lesson.

RESULTS
Differences in Classroom Management Knowledge, Self-Efficacy, and Professional

Vision between Pre-service and Beginning Teachers
Table 1 shows the descriptive statistics for pre-service teachers and beginning teachers regarding their knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs, and their professional vision.Note.Each variable was standardized to a scale between 0 and 1.A score of 1 means 100% agreement with an expert rating for pedagogical knowledge and professional vision, a very good performance rating, and a maximum of self-efficacy beliefs.
Pre-service teachers and beginning teachers did not differ significantly regarding pedagogical knowledge, self-efficacy, and professional vision.
To examine whether the predictors pedagogical knowledge and self-efficacy beliefs are associated differently with the dependent variable professional vision of classroom management regarding pre-service teachers and beginning teachers, we included the educational status as moderating variable (Cohen et al., 2003).In the sample of pre-service teachers, we did not find an association between their pedagogical knowledge and professional vision, whereas we indeed found this correlation for the total scale as well for the facet of establishing rules and routines in the sample of beginning teachers.Anyway, moderator analysis showed no significant interaction between predictor and group while predicting professional vision (Table 2).
Regarding self-efficacy beliefs, significant positive associations emerged in the total scale of professional vision for both teacher groups.The interaction term for self-efficacy beliefs was also not significant, revealing that the association between self-efficacy beliefs and professional vision was quite similar in both groups.

Level of and Associations between Pedagogical Knowledge, Self-efficacy Beliefs, Professional Vision, and Performance
Because pre-service and beginning teachers did not differ in the means concerning their dispositions (pedagogical knowledge and self-efficacy beliefs) and situation-specific cognitive skills (professional vision of classroom management), we computed the overall means and associations regarding these variables and performance.As can be seen in Table 3, pedagogical knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs and performance scores on classroom management revealed quite a high level for pre-service and beginning teachers.By contrast, their professional vision as a situation-specific cognitive skill was located in the lower midrange of the scale.Moreover, the standard deviations of professional vision were twice as high as the standard deviations of the other variables.Concerning the associations between the variables, self-efficacy beliefs were significantly related to professional vision, whereas pedagogical knowledge was not.
Additionally, pedagogical knowledge and self-efficacy beliefs were not associated with each other.Finally, performance ratings could not be accurately predicted by professional vision (Figure 2).there were noticeable differences between the three facets.In contrast to the performance of monitoring as well as rules and routines, the performance of managing momentum showed a small positive, but insignificant correlation with professional vision of managing momentum.

DISCUSSION
The aim of this study was to provide an understanding of the classroom management competence of pre-service and beginning teachers analysing dispositions, situation-specific cognitive skills, and performance.The results should help us to understand the associations between pedagogical knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs, and professional vision as a situationspecific cognitive skill, as well as performance within the first year of teaching practice.
During this phase, a lack of classroom management competence is referred to as a main reason for burnout or dropout (Common Good, 2004;Ingersoll, 2002;Meister & Melnick, 2003;Parsad et al., 2001).

Comparison between pre-service and beginning teachers
We did not find any significant differences between pre-service and beginning teachers in terms of their levels of pedagogical knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs, and professional vision.This confirms our first hypothesis concerning self-efficacy beliefs, but contradicts our hypothesis concerning pedagogical knowledge and professional vision.
Obviously, the (small) number of additional university courses, the writing of their master thesis and additional practical experience may not improve these skills to a reasonable extent.

Association between self-efficacy beliefs and professional vision
Concerning this association, our hypothesis could be confirmed that both variables were positively related, in fact for both teacher groups.This is in line with the PID-model of Blömeke and Kaiser (2017) and validates earlier results showing the joint growth of both factors in the context of teacher training (Cocca et al., 2019;Gold et al. 2017;Honskusová & Rusek, 2019).However, one exception occurred when looking at the facets of professional vision.Pre-service teachers showed a higher correlation between their self-efficacy beliefs and their professional vision of managing momentum than beginning teachers.

LIMITATIONS AND RECOMONDATIONS
The present study entails some methodological limitations.Firstly, we focused mainly on self-efficacy beliefs as one of several aspects of affect-motivation.However, Döhrmann et al. ( 2012) stated that other content-related beliefs, motivation, and the ability of selfregulation also belong to affective-motivational dispositions.Including these variables might explain more of the inter-individual variance of professional vision that we found between pre-service and beginning teachers.Secondly, we only operationalized professional vision as a situation-specific cognitive skill (Sherin & van Es, 2009).Perception and decision were not part of our instrument for measuring professional vision, which should be considered in further studies.Thirdly, it would have been helpful to use structural equation modelling to consider all variables (from dispositions to performance) in one model.Unfortunately, only 23.3 percent of the participants were willing to grant scientific access to their lessons, so that we had to use a manifest model.Finally, to ensure higher validity for the measurement of pre-service teacher performance, the additional measurement of student learning outcomes would have been a useful indicator (Nilsen & Gustafsson, 2016).

CONCLUSION
Overall, this study provides insightful results concerning the classroom management competency of pre-service and beginning teachers from dispositions to performance, to which new teacher training and education programs could refer.However, further research is needed to validate these results, including more comprehensive consideration of affective-motivational and contextual factors.
Self-efficacy beliefs regarding classroom management were assessed with the validated questionnaire "Adapted Measure of Teacher Self-Efficacy for Pre-service Teachers" by Pfitzner-Eden et al. (2014), which is itself based on the TSES (Tschannen-Moran & Woolfolk Hoy, 2001).Participants had to evaluate each of the four items ("How certain are you that you can… (1) control disruptive behaviour in the classroom?(2) get

Figure 2 .
Figure 2. Path analysis including professional knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs, professional vision, and performance

Figure 3 .
Figure 3. Path analysis including professional knowledge, self-efficacy beliefs, professional vision, and performance including the facets of classroom management concerning professional vision and performance and routines might depend heavily on the previous social experiences of students, which also belong to the situational context of each particular class.To rule out this confounding condition, it seems necessary to rate classroom management performance only of teachers who teach their own class, and to compare it with their professional vision.The results of this study only partially confirm the assumptions of the Perception-Interpretation-Decision Model(Blömeke & Kaiser, 2017).At the same time, our findings indicate a need to differentiate the PID-Model, especially regarding the concept of classroom management.It may be important to build clearer concepts regarding the influence of the situational context of the classes (e.g.teaching one's own class or a mentor's class) on the development of professional vision as a situation-specific cognitive skill and performance regarding classroom management.

Table 1
Classroom Management Knowledge, Self-Efficacy, and Professional Vision for Pre-Service Teachers and

Table 2
Multiple regressions on the professional vision of classroom management including moderator analysis

Table 3
Overall level of classroom management competence